The northern half of the Georgia coast offers a unique opportunity to study a coupled socio-ecological system, where dynamic interactions between past humans and environment articulate with, and continue to influence, the contemporary ecosystem. Extending from the Savannah River to the Altamaha River, it encompasses numerous environmentally and geomorphologically distinct settings, which were created by, and subjected to, different types of environmental processes and human activities over time (Turck 2011:210-211). This includes upland areas (barrier islands, marsh islands, and mainland) and intertidal marsh (salt, brackish, and fresh) that are cross-cut by tidal creeks, estuaries, and rivers, as well as former upland surfaces buried under Holocene sediments. The initial formation of many of these coastal landforms occurred during the Late Pleistocene epoch, before humans were present in North America. There are also Holocene-aged marsh deposits and beach ridge/ dune complexes that formed within the last 4,500 years (Hayes et al., 1980:285), in conjunction with human settlement (DePratter and Howard 1977; DePratter and Thompson 2013; Thompson et al. 2012; Turck and Alexander 2013).

 

The islands in this study area are also distinguished by the present-day riverine systems of which they are a part. Coastal landforms in deltaic settings are located at river mouths, and are part of a prograding coastline due to sediment loading from rivers, as well as other factors. In contrast, non-deltaic settings have lower sediment loads and greater erosion rates, due to the lack of riverine input. This has led to distinctly different landforms in deltaic and non-deltaic settings. Fluctuations in sea level since the Pleistocene (Colquhoun and Brooks 1986; DePratter and Howard 1981; Gayes et al. 1992) has also affected these settings over time, with landforms, marshes, and entire coastlines migrating laterally, submerging upland areas or leaving them some distance from the ocean (Turck 2011:4).

 

The combination of these various processes over time resulted in great variability in the structure and location of landforms, as well as the timing of landform creation along the northern Georgia coast. This also includes variability in the distribution of coastal resources (e.g., mollusk habitats, fisheries, upland landforms, etc.) important to humans. This synchronic and diachronic variability in coastal landscapes influenced, to some degree, human decision making regarding their use and occupation of the coastal zone over space and throughout time.

 

The Georgia coast has a well-defined archaeological chronology (DePratter 1991; Thomas 2008, 2009; Williams and Thompson 1999), making it easier to interpret the timing of cultural activities using archaeological data and methods. Native American populations began occupying the coast in appreciable numbers around 4,500 years before present (B.P.), during the Late Archaic period (DePratter 1979; Thompson and Turck 2009, 2010; Thompson 2007; Turck 2012). These groups were exclusively hunter-gatherer-fishers and relied heavily on estuarine resources (Reitz 1988; Thompson and Worth 2011). Sites at this time range from small scatters of cultural material, to large ring-shaped deposits of shell that can be over three meters in height and 100 meters in diameter (Thompson et al. 2004). Some of these large shell ring sites were occupied year round (Colaninno 2012; Thompson and Andrus 2011), and most likely represent permanent villages (Thompson 2007; Thompson and Andurs 2011). Between 3,100 and 2,400 B.P., there was a decrease in site density, indicating a decrease in population (Thompson and Turck 2009; Turck et al. 2011).

 

In the coastal zone, Native American populations tended to cluster in the deltaic regions of the coast, coinciding with a drop in sea level (Thompson and Turck 2009). Between 2,400 and 1,000 B.P., Native American populations clustered on marsh-adjacent landforms (areas of the mainland, barrier islands, and marsh islands), with a renewed intensity of the utilization of marsh-estuarine resources (Thompson and Turck 2009). Sites dating to this time period tend to be larger, and made up of numerous midden mounds- small mounds averaging around 10 meters in diameter. By 1,000 B.P. sites were found throughout the coastal zone, with the emergence of complex polities with inherited status positions (i.e., chiefdoms) (Thomas 2008). Prior to this time period, the entire economic system of the Georgia coast was strictly reliant upon hunting, fishing, and gathering in the estuaries and adjacent uplands of the coastal zone. However, at around 1,000 B.P. some groups along the coast began to supplement their foraging strategies with maize inson et al. 1998; Larsen et al. 1992). Larsen et al. (1992) note that over time, some groups became increasingly reliant upon maize agriculture. However, there is still evidence of intensive use of estuarine resources (Reitz 1988).

 

During the 500 years prior to European contact, Native groups occupied large villages on the barrier islands, some of which were over 60 hectares, with over 600 known midden mounds. In addition, it appears that some of the smaller back-barrier islands may have had similar settlements (Thompson and Turck 2010), although more archaeological excavation data are needed to verify this proposition. Given the long-term trajectory of increasing population and continued use of estuarine resources, it is likely that the Native American occupation of the coast had appreciable effects on their environment, which in turn influenced their cultural and economic ways of life over time.